Participation in Physical Education

Participation in Physical Education Free Online Research Papers This study will explore factors that may contribute to the level of participation in physical education classes. Previous research has shown that attractiveness to classmates plays a role in the exertion level of students. With exercise becoming an increasingly important component of our daily lives, it is essential individuals get as much as possible out of a class. That is why we must find what circumstances can best benefit the physical education classroom setting. (Remers, Widmeyer, Williams Myers 1995) found that large classes are heavily favored over medium size classes. The study was of college physical education classes. This study showed that there were several reasons that larger classes were preferred over medium classes; attractiveness to classmates and better group cohesion was among the top. Two other reasons that they did not expect to find were noise level and lower expectations. The noise level results were not expected because logic would tell you that the medium size class would have a lower noise level. Lower expectations in a larger class makes sense, but hardly seems like a good reason to prefer a large class to a medium one. In contrast to (Remers, Widmeyer, Williams Myers 1995), which found larger classes to be a benefit, (McKenzie, Marshal, Sallis Conway, 2000) found that among junior high school student’s larger class sizes actually had a negative affect. The larger classes had lower involvement. This study also compared activity levels to national guidelines. In (McKenzie, Marshal, Sallis Conway, 2000) boys were found to be more active than girls in all areas, which include skill drills, game play, and free play. The weekly totals of 25 minutes of vigorous activity and 83 minutes of moderate-to-vigorous activity were well below national objectives. Similarly to (McKenzie, Marshal, Sallis Conway, 2000), (Sit Linder, 2006) found that males have a higher activity level than females. However, this study looked at both recreational and competitive sports. This study examined situational state balances and motives for sport activity participation. The group was competitive or recreational sports participants 14-20 years of age. The study found seven motivational factors: status, team/friend, excitement/challenge, skill, energy release, fitness, and situational factors. They assessed that male and competitive sport participants were more influenced by these seven motivational factors than females and recreational participants. In another study (Cardon, Verstraete, Clercq, Bourdeaudhuij, 2004) swimming and non-swimming classes were compared for activity level. Children 8-12 years of age were put in two classes, swimming and non-swimming. The student participation level in the swimming class was higher. Their moderate-to-vigorous activity level during swimming was 52% while non-swimming only produced 40%. The author made the point that for this reason swimming should be included in physical education classes. However, both classes were still below the national standards for activity level. Group cohesion and individual adherence to physical activity has also been studied. Two areas were examined separately (Carron, 1988). The first area tried to link cohesiveness to adherence behavior in both organized sports and classrooms (Carron, 1988). The second examined individual perception of group cohesion to tardiness in recreation participants (Carron, 1988). Both studies concluded that group cohesion plays a role in individual adherence behavior. The results were the same for styles including fitness classes, recreational sports teams, and even elite sports teams. In one secondary article by, (*Lottes, 1996), the focus was on how to reduce class size to increase student involvement. It was reported students do not feel comfortable in a normal health class because enrollment is too high. This is an area in which students express anxiety talking in front of the class. Gettysburg College decided to lower class size to around 15 as opposed to the 30-35 averages. They did not have enough faculty members to cover the class, so they had to sign on extra help in the form of volunteers, coaches, and even a foreign language professor. Faculty took sections of the health class that they had the most experience with. This system worked and students became much more relaxed and involved. This supports the idea that smaller classes are a benefit to physical education. (National Institute of Child Health and Human Development Early Child Care Research 2005) studied third grade classrooms in academic courses, which used whole group activity. Teacher behavior and classroom climate were only slightly correlated with class size or teacher experience. Student engagement was found to be higher when more instructional and emotional support was given. Positive class environment and teacher sensitivity had a significant impact on the children. Participation was minimally affected by class size, but teacher involvement had a large influence. Sticking with the elementary level and influences of participation, (Finn Pannozzo, 2004) looked at kindergarten classes for engagement and learning behaviors for the class and for individual students. The areas of full or half day, class size, and whether teacher aid was present were variables. Class behavior was largely influenced by length of day (half day was better behaved) and class size (small classes were better behaved). Student aids were not a factor in behavior. Individual student behavior was not significantly correlated to class size or length of day. The purpose of this research is to examine internal and external factors that affect participation and attendance in fitness style physical education classes. Exploring this plays a vital role in understanding what is most beneficial for the students. Finding these factors can lead to a better understanding in those areas. I intend to explore the areas of class size and type of class. Since I am manipulating the size and type of class this would be considered the independent variable. The participation level and attendance are the dependent variables. The study will involve three class sizes and three different types of classes. These three classes will be fitness walking, jogging, and mini marathon training. These classes all have a different level of expected participation and exertion because they all require different paces and distances. I expect this to influence the results in our previously mentioned categories. Recent studies have shown that there are several reasons participation level is affected. Those that have already been addressed are age, sex, race, and types of classes. Studies have already shown that large classes are preferred over medium classes. The rationale behind this is better class cohesion, more attractiveness to classmates and lower expectations of both the class and instructor. This has contributed to higher overall satisfaction and higher exertion rates. However, I want to explore the affects of small, medium, and large classes and the differences they present. I suspect that small classes may have a positive affect on participation and exertion. I also want to further explore the theory of larger classes being more desirable than medium classes. Participants and Design My hypothesis is that smaller classes will have a higher participation level and better attendance than medium and large classes. Also, higher intensity classes will have higher participation level and better attendance than medium and low intensity classes. Three class sizes were used: a small class (10-15 people), a medium class (26-40), and large class (60 plus). There also will be three different types of physical education classes. These classes are fitness walking, jogging, and mini marathon training. These classes are open to all students; thus, there is no way to equally distribute the classes based on gender, age, or demographic data. Measures This research will take place during the spring 2007 semester. Participants will not know they are being examined until the last week of the semester. However, they will be given a questionnaire in their first and last week of class. The first questionnaire will ask questions about their expectations in the class. This will include level of exertion, attendance, energy level of instructor, one on one time, and various other questions relating to expectations. The questionnaire handed out on the last week of class will ask a lot of the same questions, but whether their expectations in the class were met. Questions concerning the professor’s preparation, amount of time given in class to be active, activities, and classmates will all be addressed. This form will also involve questions where the students can recommend areas of improvement. These questionnaires will be on a seven point Likert scale ranging from never (1) to always (7). There will be three instructors taking part. Each will teach all three class sizes in their area of expertise. Expertise is based on types of classes the instructor has taught in the past. Participants will be analyzed by the student’s attendance and quantity of participation. Quantity of participation will be based on how long the class is given to exercise that day and how long each participant is involved in the daily activity. For instance if the participant walks for 20 minutes and the instructor has assigned them 30 minutes to be active they have a quantity of participation of 67%. This information will be evaluated and graphed. The different classes and sizes will then be compared to see which size and activity level is best suited for secondary education classes. This information should give us knowledge of what we need to provide students so they are able to get more from the physical education classroom setting. The number of students in each class has already defined class size. Attendance taken by the instructor was averaged out for the entire class. Each class has a mean and a standard deviation. Quantity of participation was a formula figured by dividing the number of minutes active by the number of minutes the instructor gave students to be active. This number would be in decimal form and then would be converted to a percentage. Two researchers were to watch each class. After the class was over the researchers would compare their results. They would have to come to an agreement on 90% of one class before continuing to the next class. Procedures Participants were signed up for fitness walking, jogging, or mini marathon training through a university physical education class. Depending on which class participants enrolled in they could be in a class of 10-15 students, 26-40 students or 60 plus students. During each class students would be given a daily exercise routine. The students would exercise for the remaining time after the instructor explained the routine. On the first day of class instructors told the students that participation is a significant part of the grade. They went over the course syllabus and made them aware of their expectations. The instructors also told the students that they would be observed closely to see how much effort they are putting forth. However, the instructors did not tell the students that they are being observed as part of a research project. The students were not made aware of the experiment until the last day of class when they were asked to fill out their second questionnaire. It was then that I asked each student to sign a consent form for his or her results to be shared. If a student chose not to sign the form his or her information was discarded (30 participants were eliminated from the study). Participants (N=318) that met all guidelines were 55% female. Also, 48.5% were Caucasian, 25.4% African-American, 17.6% Latin American, 6.4% Asian, and 3.1% Muslim. Ages ranged from 18-36 years of a ge (M=25.7 and SD 3.48). Figure 2 on page 17 shows participants that were included or excluded from results. Figure 3 on page 17 shows a more detailed look at the age range of participants. Each class was observed by two of the six researchers. Two researchers were assigned to all sizes of a specific class (fitness walking, jogging, or mini marathon training). Since the areas where the classes took place are not closed during use, the researchers were easily able to sit in. The researchers sat in on random days and had two tasks when sitting in on a class. The first task was to observe whether any outside factors were manipulating their data. Factors could include bad weather, instructors’ participation, or a disruptive student. If it was found a certain class had outside influences that class would be disregarded. The second task was to measure the quantity of participation of each student. Since this category is determined by amount of time spent doing the activity divided by the number of time given to do the activity, it was an easy equation to figure. Each researcher was assigned to watch the whole class. They calculated their results separate ly during the class. The researchers then compared one class at a time and had to agree on 95% of that class before continuing. Grades and attendance were kept by the instructor and were not needed until the end of the semester. Each researcher was a graduate assistant who has taught at the university level. These instructors have all taught these three types of classes before. Since they have taught these classes they know what is expected of the instructor and the students. In addition each of these researchers has taken part in prior research and is familiar with collecting and analyzing data. Data Analysis I have visually inspected my data for outliers and non-linear relationships. There was no data that was outside the normal scores. All students involved in the research were well within the expected area. Probability levels were set at .05. A series of one-way ANOVA was the process used to analyze data. Figures 4-7 located on pages 17 18 are each one-way ANOVA ran. These ANOVA’s include comparing 1. Attendance in small classes to medium and large classes, 2. Participation in small classes to medium and large classes, 3. Attendance in high intensity classes to low and medium intensity classes, and 4. Participation in high intensity classes to low and medium intensity classes. The group means were found in both attendance and quantity of participation. Both categories were based on three class sizes and three class types. The questionnaires will also be scored to see what other factors students felt influenced their participation and attendance. Results I wanted to find possible factors influencing participation in physical education classes. The areas I wanted to study were class size and class type. With the study we have conducted we can break these categories down individually. Participation and attendance were not influenced by either category. Figure 1 on page 16 shows the quantity of participation. Participation was evaluated in the three different class types as well as the three different sizes. The nine totals are grouped by type of class and a color is give to each class size. Results found that class type does have an influence on participation. The mini marathon class had the highest participation followed by jogging and finally walking. The data also showed that class size influenced participation. In all three types of activities small class size (10-15) had the highest level of participation followed by large classes (60+). Medium classes (26-40) finished last. The data that was conducted reached a .83 level Table 1 on page 16 shows the absences for each of the nine classes. The absences are presented by the mean and a standard deviation is provided to show the curve. The results are similar to the finding of the quantity of participation graph. The mini marathon classes on average had fewer absences, followed by jogging, and finally walking. Absences were also the lowest in smaller classes. Larger classes were second and medium classes were third. The data collected for this reached a .91 level. A relationship between class type and class size could impact participation. Results supported higher activity type classes. In the table results attendance was lowest in smaller classes and highest in medium classes. For instance, not only is quantity of participation higher in mini marathon than walking, but in small classes versus medium classes as well. Combining these two factors shows that quantity of participation is even more significant between small mini marathon classes and medium walking classes. The same results are found for attendance. Class size and class type were both factors that contribute to attendance. Class size found students of small classes to be more likely to attend class followed by large and medium classes respectively. Class type found that students in the more active classes were more likely to attend class. Class size and class type were also factors in quantity of participation. Results showed smaller classes had a higher quantity of participation followed by large classes and medium classes respectively. Class type showed that more active classes had a higher quantity of participation. Figure 8 on page 18 (class intensity) and figure 9 on page 19 (class size) show the mean and standard deviation of attendance and participation. The questionnaires revealed some other potential factors that should be included in future research. In the questionnaire given prior to the start of the semester students identified the instructors preparation, instructors expectations, and group cohesion as the three main factors that could influence their participation and attendance in class. However, at the end of the semester a final questionnaire was given and the students revealed attractiveness to classmates, group cohesion, and student’s expectations to be the three factors that contributed to their own participation and attendance. Discussion The purpose of this study is to find potential factors that contribute to participation in physical education classes. Results found that participation and attendance could be affected by class size and class intensity. This study had two purposes. The first was to compare attendance and participation in smaller classes to medium and large classes. In our study smaller classes did have better attendance and higher participation than both medium and large classes. The second was to compare attendance and participation in high intensity classes to medium and low intensity classes. In our study high intensity classes did have better attendance and higher participation. My findings had a different result than (Remers, Widmeyer, Williams Myers 1995) because they concluded that larger classes are the best setting for physical education classes. My results show smaller classes to be the most favorable. However, just like (Remers, Widmeyer, Williams Myers 1995) my research did show that large classes are preferred over medium sized classes. My research found intensity level to be a factor. (Cardon, Verstraete, Clercq, Bourdeaudhuij, 2004) concluded that swimming classes are beneficial to physical education because the high intensity level raises participation. My study also found that high intensity classes have higher participation. A study in physical education classes, (Carron, 1988), found group cohesion to be a factor in participation. In my questionnaires, both before and after the study, students identified group cohesion as one of the top three motivational factor of participation. (Carron, 1988) found adherence to exercise to the other main factor, but this was not listed by any student on either of the two questionnaires. This studied showed that participants in physical education prefer smaller class sizes. In small classes both attendance and participation level were higher than in medium and larger classes. This is important for university physical education departments and instructors because they can go into a class having a better idea of what to expect. If staffed properly universities can focus on smaller classes in order for the experience to be more effective for students. This study also showed participants performed better in high intensity classes. In high intensity classes attendance and participation was higher than low and medium intensity classes. Universities can also use this information to have a better understanding going into a class. They can plan a more vigorous routine in the high intensity classes because the student’s expectations of these classes are higher. The combination of small classes and high intensity classes show even greater attendance and participation. This is key for instructors to plan the semester and to have legitimate expectations for the class. Group cohesion, instructor’s preparation, instructor’s expectations, student’s expectations and attractiveness to classmates have all been identified by participants to be other key factors in attendance and participation. The more factors that an instructor can facilitate can help keep the students involved. The goal of this study was to find factors that could influence participation. Using what we have learned could contribute to a higher student satisfaction. Higher satisfaction can lead to better health. Limitations to my study could include design and selection of participants. The design could be limited because I did not account for participant exertion. I measured the participation level by taking the time spent working out by the time given to work out. However, I did not test to see how hard each participant was working out. It could be possible that most participants were working at a low level of exertion. The selection process could also influence the results. Since this was a physical education class I could not decide for myself who would be involved. It was just a matter of who signed up for what class. If I would have controlled the environment results could be different. Joining a class with a friend, year in school, and major course of study could all be possible influences in participation. Since I did not account for this there is no way of knowing if it was a factor. In my research classes were limited to a walking/running type format. Different types of classes such as weight training or a particular sport might yield different results. If the researcher can find a proper way to calculate the participant’s exertion rate this should be done. Future research should take demographics and schooling into consideration. Age, sex, race, anthropometrics, year in school and major course of study are all factors that could influence participation in physical education classes. Exploring these areas could lead to a better understanding of student engagement. Exploring attendance and participation based on class size and intensity level yielded useful results. Both class size and intensity levels are factors that contribute to attendance and participation. Students could benefit from smaller and higher intensity classes. Using this information is key to benefiting the student. With a more positive environment to work in students are more likely to return. They are also more likely to sign up for future classes. This could improve the health of many people. References Cardon, G., Verstraete, S., De Clercq, D., De Bourdeaudhuij.I. (2004). Physical activity levels in elementary-school physical education: A comparison of swimming and non-swimming classes. Journal of Teaching in Physical Education, 23, 252-263. Carron, A. (1988). Group cohesion and individual adherence to physical activity. Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology, 10, 127-138. Finn, J., Pannozzo, G.M. (2004). Class organization and student behavior in kindergarten. Journal of Educational Research, 98, 79-92. *Lottes, C.R. (1996). Reducing class size to reduce student involvement. The Pennsylvania Journal of Health, Physical Education, Recreation, Dance, 66, 18-19. McKenzie, T.J., Marshall S.J., Sallis, J.F., Conway, T.C. (2000). Student activity levels, lessons context, and teacher behavior during middle school physical education. Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport, 71, 249-260. National Institute of Child Health and Human Development Early Child Care Research Network (2005). A day in third grade: A large scale study of classroom quality and teacher and student behavior. The Elementary School Journal, 105, 305-323. Remers, L., Widmeyer, W.N., Williams, J.M., Myers, L. (1995). Possible mediators and moderators of the class size-member adherence relationship in exercise. Journal of Applied Sport Psychology, 7, 38-49. Sit, C.H.P., Linder K.J. (2006). Situational state balances and participation motivation in youth sport: A Reversal Theory Perspective. The British Journal of Educational Psychology, 76, 369-384. Research Papers on Participation in Physical EducationStandardized TestingThe Relationship Between Delinquency and Drug UseInfluences of Socio-Economic Status of Married MalesResearch Process Part OneEffects of Television Violence on ChildrenBionic Assembly System: A New Concept of SelfMarketing of Lifeboy Soap A Unilever ProductHip-Hop is ArtPersonal Experience with Teen PregnancyPETSTEL analysis of India

Asian Popular Culture Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3500 words - 1

Asian Popular Culture - Essay Example Therefore, it is important for HR management to be involved in organizational planning in order to identify the appropriate resources to attain the planned objectives. Secondly, organizations are able to craft effective and successful corporate strategies with the help of HR management. Effective corporate strategies can be formulated with the help of HR management because of several reasons. To start with, HR policies can easily achieve coordination flexibility where it is possible to make effective use of available resources by making necessary reallocation to keep up with the changing needs hence making it easy for an organization to attain desired objectives even in a changing environment. In addition, HR policies can help an organization to attain resource flexibility, which is essential for company success in the market particularly if product or service differentiation is the strategy of choice to compete in the market. Resource flexibility can be attained through cross-training, job rotation and team training, processes that can be effectively executed through HRM management. i. HR management can help to identify the correct type of employees in order for the organization to attain core objectives. For example, HR can help to acquire employees with minimal to average skills for companies that adopt Low-Cost-Provider Strategy or highly skilled employees for companies that adopt Differentiation Strategy in market competition. ii. HR management can initiate the correct procedures to select appropriate employees in different organizations. Recruitment costs should be kept at the lowest levels in companies in order to reduce the general expenditures. In this case, the HR is responsible for evaluating the cheapest avenues of sources employees with the required skills. For instance, the HR department can decide to advertise internally through a memo if an evaluation of existing employees indicates that

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Classroom management plan - Essay Example Having the appropriate atmosphere for every student to study is the teacher’s main goal of enforcing best classroom management. Without the peaceful environment students will not be able to learn. Discipline Philosophy This season the district has incorporated classroom rules in all of the schools. As an observer during the first two days I learnt a lot that will assist me evaluate my philosophy for the teaching career a head. As a teacher I have placed a lot of emphasis in considering the values and beliefs concerning discipline and personal management style and the social objectives for the students.The objective is to arrange the logistic of the classroom so that the students in the classroom become student-centred instead of becoming teacher-centred. In order to be very organized the structure of the classroom need to vary, which allows change to be done to parts of the plan from one year to another (Elena et al, 2007 P. 64). One of the key rules is to show respect to ever ybody and accommodating their differences. Every student have his or her own way of learning, and creating an appreciation for those differences will be important in building a safe and peaceful classroom community.From the knowledge gained in classroom what as a teacher I view as main components classroom management plan have receive a great influence. I have view the two sides of the spectrum in ways of structure. A classroom was more structured with the structure dominating the classroom and studying was not going on. Another room was complete chaos and the instructor had lost control over his students, and he did not mind to come up with structure to improve their learning. The view of discipline in the classroom entails all of the skills an individual have had in various classroom setting. There must be a clear understanding of the structure by the teacher as well having valid concern entailing the well-being of the students. If a teacher can understand his individual values on classroom structure, he will create a very reliable management plan that he can use. The classroom experience changes the instructors way to the type of rules he chooses for the classroom. For instance, the teacher may think that one of the main rules, which cannot be negotiated, is for every student to be in school on time. The same teacher my later realize how problematic and narrow-minded the idea is when considering various schools. He can learn that such rule should not exist, as he would be putting students, most of whom have no means of controlling their morning arrival due to a guardian driver, at a disadvantage. In addition the teacher needs to be honest like the saying ‘Honest is the policy’. The instructor should become honest and show respect to those that are also honest. He should, therefore, make a classroom community where every student understands that becoming honest is the best (Sprick, 2010 P. 103). Moreover, they should learn that lying is not a me ans for escaping out of a problem of for getting a conflict resolved. Having this skills and expectation, the instructor will move into his classroom understanding the kind of person he his. He will also know how he will use his life experiences to assist him to be a guide for his students’ educational experience. Rules/Reward/Consequences Consequential management is an agreed measure in ensuring that students attain their set objectives. It is a positive measure as it serves to provide the student informed

Communicate with Clients Case Study Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2250 words

Communicate with Clients - Case Study Example By contrast, a poor communicator will speak non-stop, denying the other party an opportunity to take an active part in the dialogue. Examples of non-verbal dues are facial expressions and eye contact(Daisley-Snow, et al., 2014). Facial expressions reveal the emotions of a person in a powerful way that words cannot. For instance, a person who is surprised may raise their eye-brow. Similarly, when people are sad, they frown and when they are happy they smile. Eye contact is one of the most powerful visual clues (Daisley-Snow, et al., 2014). When one talks to a person and the recipient maintains their gaze into the eyes of the speaker, this is usually taken as a sign of interest. Also, when a person is thinking, they tend to stare far into the distance. These are the tools I would use to build a therapeutic relationship with my client Adonia. In order to get the most of my consultation with Adonia, I would use several listening skills. These would include paraphrasing, summarizing, questioning and the use of encouragers (Bolton, 2009). I would use paraphrasing whenever Adonia would seem uncertain of what they were telling me. In that case, I would paraphrase what they had just said and ask if that was what they meant. I would resort to summarizing if I felt that the client was giving too much information that was not relevant and, therefore, not adding value to the consultation. I would look for appropriate moments then intervene. Such moments would include her pauses. I would intervene by redirecting her to the purpose of the consultation. I would question my client whenever they appeared not sure of whatever they were saying or at moments when they appeared doubtful of me. In the first instance, I would restate what they had just said and ask them if they were sure of it. In the second instance, whenever I sensed doubt through the way she expressed herself facially, I would encourage her to ask me questions so I could clarify points. Encouragers would come

all the kIngs men :: essays research papers

The amount of change people go through in their lives is remarkable. One day, a person can be a devious criminal, while the next day that same person could turn a new leaf and become a saint. The change that Jack goes through in All the King’s Men, by Robert Penn Warren, is comparable to that of the schizophrenic patient who receives a lobotomy. Although Jack undergoes no physical change, the events he witnesses change his personality, and transform him into an entirely new man. While Jack views the world in a schizophrenic fashion, in the end he changes his philosophical mind frame and finds the cure for his disease. Jack does view the world in a schizophrenic manner. According to Webster's dictionary, the psychosis for schizophrenia is a retreating from reality. Jack retreats from reality a lot. When Jack found out that Anne was having an affair with Willie, he disconnected himself from reality. He went west, to Long Beach, where he commenced with his great sleep. The great sleep was a very important thing for jack because it allowed him to avoid reality. He would sleep and everything else would go on. While in Long Beach, Jack thought that he had discovered the greatest thought he ever had. That thought was the great twitch, a belief that there are no consequences for actions since they are only â€Å"twitches† of impulses. This thought was probably the biggest attempt to evade reality. Believing in the great twitch, Jack set himself apart from the rest of the world. By thinking that no one could be blamed for anything, he dodged blame from himself. By acting out the great sleep and the Great twitch, he was able to act like a schizophrenic until he had a change in philosophical views. Jack's philosophical views changed, just as the view of the patient would have after the surgery. Jack was, in the beginning of the novel, a believer in The Great Twitch. He becomes, in the end of the novel, a believer in the Spider Web Theory, a belief that all things are connected and every action has some effect on everything else. At the scene of the lobotomy, Jack comments that someone should baptize the patient "in the name of the Big Twitch, the Little Twitch, and the Holy Ghost, Who, no doubt, is a Twitch, too." Towards the end of the story, Jack "woke up one morning to discover that he did not believe in the Great Twitch any more.

Food Essay Essay

Food not only distinguishes and represents a culture, but can also reflect ones personality, lifestyle, and socio-economic status. America is made up of every kind of culture, nationality, and custom. Because America is mainly composed of immigrants and descendants of immigrants, there is no real American cuisineâ‚ ¬? only Americanized cuisine and a multitude of cuisines taken from various cultures. The diversity that makes up american cuisine is as varied as the diversity that makes up America. Also, as there are many cuisines that make up  American cuisine, there are also many roles of food in American pop culture. From classifying gender and social status to providing fuel, satisfaction, and excuses, food affects people in many ways. Since I have come to college, I have learned to appreciate Korean food, which I have grown up eating. Korean food is part of the diverse group of cuisines that make up american cuisine. Although I enjoy almost every type of food, I am partial to Korean food, the cuisine of my native land. One of my two favorite dishes is mandu soon dubu, which is a spicy tofu soup with dumplings cooked in it. The other favorite is dwenjang jjigae, which is a somewhat salty bean curd stew with tofu and various vegetables cooked in it. I like spicy or salty foods, which may explain why these two foods are my favorite, and also why I like seafood so much. When I go to my home in Torrance, I eat Korean food every day. As a result, when I am at school, I crave Korean food even when it comes time to eat the delicious food at the dining halls. Korean food style is not restricted to Korean food, but can also be incorporated into other types of cuisine, such as Chinese food. From my observations, many Chinese restaurants are owned and run by Koreans, so the food is affected by Korean tastes. The dishes are made less greasy and spicier to fit the Korean taste. At these restaurants, onions with black bean paste, kim chi, and pickled radishes called dah-ggwang, are served as small appetizers. There are even Chinese dishes that started in Korea and are now served in Chinese restaurants owned by Koreans: jjam-bbong (a spicy seafood soup with noodles), and jja jjang myun (noodles in a black bean paste sauce with beef, cucumbers, and onions).

Eco-geographic and agro-Morphologic diversity in pakistani rice landrace genotypes - Free Essay Example

Sample details Pages: 18 Words: 5301 Downloads: 9 Date added: 2017/06/26 Category Statistics Essay Did you like this example? Abstract Assessment of ago-morphological diversity among conserved accessions is helpful in germplasm management and crop improvement practices. In this study 174 Pakistani Rice landrace genotypes were evaluated for 18 quantitative and 9 qualitative agro-morphological traits. Substantial amount of genetic diversity was observed for most of the traits studied. Mean values of landrace genotypes were compared with three check varieties, IR36, Super Basmati and JP5. Introduction Rice is grown in all four provinces of Pakistan. However, the acreage under rice varies greatly from one province to another. The Punjab and Sindh are the major rice growing provinces with about 59% and 33%, respectively of the total rice in the country. The remaining 5% of the area is planted in Baulochistan and 3% in NWFP (FAO, 2004). Despite the fact that its cultivated area is far smaller than wheat (more than 7.24 million), it has a great impact on national economy due to two reasons. Firstly, rice is the only crop which can be grown successfully in vast chunks of salt-ridden and water-logged areas where it facilitates not only the reclamation of land for the cultivation of other crops but also provide food. Secondly, superior quality basmati has a consistently increasing demand in the foreign countries. Consequently, there is a great scope for augmenting the foreign exchange earning by exporting it in bigger quantity. In view of these facts, it is highly desirable to increase t he production and improve the quality of rice. The quality is particularly more important from the trade view point, as it is instrument entail in increasing and then sustaining the demand in the foreign market in competition with other rising exporting countries. There in no denying the fact that purity is the very sole of quality. The impurities not only restrict the export trade, but also inflict losses to the growers, millers and the consumers alike. Therefore, these should possibly be minimized (Salim et al. 2003). Don’t waste time! Our writers will create an original "Eco-geographic and agro-Morphologic diversity in pakistani rice landrace genotypes" essay for you Create order Rice (Oryza sativa (2n = 24) is a monocot plant and belongs to the Poaceae family and Oryzoidea subfamily. It occupies almost one-fifth of the total land area under world cereals. It covers about 148 million hectares annually that is roughly 11 percent of the world-cultivated land. It is life for more than half of humanity and in past, it shaped the cultures, diets, and economies of billions of people in the world (Farooq et al. 2009). Rice is a major source of macro and micronutrients for human being. It is used as feed for more than two billion people worldwide and one of the staple food in Asia. It provides over 21 percent of the calorific needs of the worlds population and up to 76 percent of the calorific intake of the population of South East Asia (Fitzgerald et al. 2009). Depending upon the irrigation water availability, rice can be grown in any part of the country from sea level up to 2500m height. Pakistan has a climate and a potential in soil that permits the expectations o f a most bright future for the production of rice. Considering temperature difference, optimum sowing seasons and the varietal performance, rice growing areas can be divided in four ecological zones (Salim et al. 2003). Introgression of genes from other rice species can provide genetic variation to improve rice and meet the challenges affecting rice production. Morphological traits including both qualitative and quantitative ones are used to evaluate genetic relationship among genotypes (Goodman 1972; Bajracharya et al. 2006). Agronomic evaluation was used for screening of lines with desired performance by Akram et al. (1995) in field leading to the identification of varieties possessing longer and fine grains as donors for utilization in breeding programs aimed for the improvement of grain length in Basmati rice. The interrelations among grain quality traits could be useful to study the relationship among grain quality components and for improving selection criteria (Koutroubas et al. 2004). Keeping in view these benefits, morphological variation is a selection criterion for plant scientists among landrace genotypes. Though the environmental factors also play an important role in morphological variation but the knowledge of agro-morphological diversity and the distribution pattern of variation among crop species could be an invaluable aid in germplasm management and crop improvement strategies. Zeng et al. (2007) studied genetic diversity based on ecogeographic location and morphological characters of rice landraces (Oryza sativa L.) in Yunnan, China. Major difference in ecological diversity index of rice resources between prefectures or counties in Yunnan province exists. Sanni et al. (2008) studied the relationship in geographical pattern and morphological variation of 880 rice landrace in Cote dIvoire for 13 agro-morphological characters. Result of the phenotypic frequency showed differential distribution of landraces with height, heading and maturity period which ref lected the distribution pattern of different Oryza sativa landraces in Cote dIvoire that proved useful in germplasm management and breeding programs. Morpho-physiological traits are an important tool in hands of plant breeders for identification and purity testing of rice varieties. Present study is based upon the morphological evaluation of Pakistani rice landraces using quantitative and qualitative traits as marker. The purpose of the study is to evaluate geographical pattern of diversity, regional estimation of phenotype polymorphism and selection of better genotype for use in breeding programs. Materials and Methods Plant Materials Rice genotypes used in this study consisted of 174 landraces from all four ecological rice growing zones collected in 1974 in a germplasm collection project. Collections include three major rice growing provinces Punjab, Sindh and NWFP (North West Frontier Province) of Pakistan where is used as second major crop after wheat. These germplasm accessions have been preserved ex-situ in gene bank of NARC (National Agricultural Research Centre), Islamabad. Experiment Location The experiments were conducted during growing seasons 2006 and 2007 under field condition at Institute of Agro-biotechnology and Genetic Resources, National Agricultural Research Institute, Islamabad (33.40 N and 73.07 E) approximately at an altitude of 518meters above sea level. Experimental Design and Crop Management A nursery was raised in pots and then transplanted into field. Rice field was grown in an augmented design with three check varieties (IR6, Super-basmati and JP5) during 2006 and 2007. Data was recorded on the 18 quantitative traits (days to 50% heading, days to maturity, flag leaf length, flag leaf width, flag leaf area, plant height, panicle length, total tillers per plant, productive tiller per plant, branches per panicle, grain yield per plant, 1000 grain weight, straw yield per plant, Harvest index, paddy grain length, paddy grain breadth and grain length to breadth ratio) and nine qualitative traits (Flag leaf angle, flag leaf shape, flag leaf appearance, lodging, panicle type, panicle exertion, awning, awn color and seed coat color) for 2006 and 2007 respectively. Statistical Analysis The mean value of each character for all accession was calculated and subjected to statistical analysis i.e., Standard deviation, variance, standard error and correlation coefficient, using statistical software, Microsoft Excel and STATISTICA. The Shannon-Weaver diversity index (H0) using Jain et al. (1975) was calculated by analysing phenotypic frequencies of the 18 quantitative traits during both years for collective as well as provincial groups. Multivariate analysis was performed using NTSYS PC2.2, Euclidean distance was estimated based on quantitative a well as qualitative traits data (Nei, 1987) and based on distance matrix, dendrograms were constructed for both years using un-weighted paired group arithmetic means. Second multivariate analysis, the principle component analysis (PCA) was also done in order to identify the traits with maximum contribution in total diversity. Results Collective phenotypic response during two experimental years All eighteen traits were polymorphic and almost same trend was observed during both growing seasons on whole germplasm accessions. Table shows the frequency distribution for 18 quantitative trait as percentage of the total number of accessions used in study. Majority of the landraces were early in flowering and maturity with medium flag leaf length during year 2006 and 2007. 72.3% and 67.2% of the landraces during 2006 and 2007, respectively were tall in height. Maximum accessions produced 10 to 15 productive tillers per plant. Allele for intermediate panicle length was dominant in Pakistani landrace genotypes during both field trials. Majority of the accessions showed vary high (80%) seed setting percentage during both years. Grain yield and biological yield showed not considerable consistency in continuos field trials. Intermediate grain length and width was observed in majority of the landraces during both years. Patterns of phenotypic variation in Punjab, Sindh and North West Frintier Province The individual characters, differs in their patterns of distribution as well as the amount of variation. Table 3 shows the frequency distribution for individual characters as the percentage of the number of accessions from each geographical zone. The largest amount of entries was from the Punjab and was represented by 153 accessions, followed by North West Frontier province with 11 accessions and 10 accessions from Sindh respectively Generally, paddy grain breadth was relatively monomorphic for Sindh province (zone III and IV) as only broad grain breadth was observed in this province while it was polymorphic in other zones. Remaining quantitative traits were highly polymorphic in all rice growing zones of Pakistan. Seventy two percent of the landraces in the whole germplasm collection were found to be tall in the regions, 26% were of moderate height while only 1% were semi dwarf. The collection had predominantly medium leaves of average length and this distribution pattern was almost the same in all the regions. Forty nine percent of the landraces had relatively wide leaves, short as 37 % and while only 10 % with narrow leaf structure. The leaf length, leaf blade pubescence and leaf angle were widely distributed throughout the collection. The Phenotypic distribution of the leaf length showed that, 72% had intermediate, while those with relatively longer and shorter leaves were 19 and 10% respectively. Leaf blade pubescence and leaf angle were widely distributed throughout the collection. The phenotypic distribution for the number of days to 50% head did not follow the same pattern in all the zones. In the northern and north-western region, the accessions that headed early were more than the late heading type, in the west-central most of the accession fell into the intermediate number of days to 50% heading while in the west, there more of the late maturing accessions than the early heading varieties. Degree of abundance for qualitative traits The most abundant or maximum values for each qualitative trait were observed in rice genotypes to check degree of abundance for different traits. The trait of flag leaf angle showed maximum value as Erect leaf in 66 genotypes with frequency of 37.3%. In 87 genotypes lodging was slightly present with frequency of 49.1%. Panicle type was observed compact in 81 genotypes with frequency of 45.8%. Panicle exertion was well exerted in abundance with frequency 91 and frequency percentage 51.4%. Most of the genotypes were seen awned during observation of awning trait with frequency 93 and percentage 52.5%. The character of awn color was also dominated by white with frequency 114 and frequency percentage 64.4%. Dark brown seed coat color was most abundant of all with frequency 65 and frequency percentage 36.7%. Correlation coefficient analysis: The correlation coefficients among the quantitative traits (Table 2) revealed that the days to heading and days to maturity showed strongly positive significant correlation with each other was positively correlated with all the other traits except the 100 seeds weight which was negatively correlated with number of seeds per pod. After keen observation of all the traits and using different statistical analysis, the best performance and genetically diverse gene pools were selected (Table 3) for developing improved genotypes. Days to heading and days to maturity showed strongly positive significant correlation with each other, in addition to branches per panicle, paddy grain length and grain length to breadth ratio. A strongly positive and significant correlation was observed between plant height and flag leaf length as well as panicle length. Grain yield per plant was also strongly positively related with productive tiller per plant. Highly significant and negative correlations were ob served for days to heading and maturity and flag leaf breadth. Flag leaf breadth also showed highly significant negative correlation with productive tillers per plant, paddy grain length as well as with grain length to breadth ratio. Paddy grain breadth showed highly significant negative correlation with paddy grain length and grain length to breadth ratio as well. Estimates and analysis of Diversity indices Shannon-Weaver diversity index (H0) for 18 quantitative traits was measured separately for different geographical zones and ecological regions and appropriately weighted by the number of accessions. H0 was estimated for each of the 18 characters in three geographical rice growing zones. The mean of Shannon diversity index, pooled over characters within geographical regions, varied from 0.68 for Punjab to 0.61 for Sindh and 0.57 for NWFP during 2006 while in next year 2007, it was 0.60 for Punjab, 0.62 for Sindh and 0.67 for NWFP. For all the collected landraces, no diversity was observed in grain breadth of accessions collected from Sindh province, the minimum value of H0 was 0.20 for 1000GW and paddy grain length to breadth ratio of accessions collected from NWFP during 2006 while it showed a little increased in next growing season. Collections from Punjab showed least diversity in panicle length during both years and days to heading showed minimum diversity in accessions collected from Sindh. The maximum value was 1.00 for the trait days to heading in accessions collected from Punjab, with an overall mean of 0.47. Variation was not consistent among all studied quantitative variables. However, the mean of H0 showed an apparent diversity for all characters, considering the values of the pooled over characters within each classifying variable. The results of analysis of variance (ANOVA) in Table 5 showed significant differences for between characters within geographical zones and ecological regions. Significant differences for both geographical zones and ecological regions existed only in the leaf blade pubescence. Awning showed significant difference between ecological zones. 1000-grain weight revealed significant difference between geographical regions. Multivariate Analysis Based on Agro-morphological Traits Twenty seven agro-morphological traits were analyzed by multivariate analyses using two complementary procedures, namely, cluster and principal component analyses (Sneath and Sokal, 1973). To avoid effects due to scaling differences, means of each trait were standardized prior to analyses. Euclidean dissimilarity coefficient matrices were used to reveal the patterns of genetic relationship between genotypes with a cluster analysis performed by NTSYS-pc, Version 2.1 package (Rohlf, 2005). The results are presented in the form of phenograms to depict and evaluate the degree of morphological similarity and to infer relationships among genotypes. Estimation of Euclidean distance The Euclidean distance matrix for all 15,487 pair-wise comparisons of 174 landraces was beyond the scope of its presentation in tabulated form. However, a wide range of genetic distance was observed among the landraces tested. The estimates of Euclidean genetic distance values ranged from 1.9 (between 6655 and 6658) to 14.8 (between 6779 and 6757) during 2006, followed by 12.3, 12.2 and 12.1 observed between 6779 and check variety Super basmati, 6779 and 6556, 6546 and 6757, respectively. The mean genetic distance between all pairs of landraces was 7.021.07. Landraces 6779, 6758, 6624, 6745, 6628 and 6626 showed maximum distance with all other landraces. It was observed that Euclidean distance among clusters ranged from 1.09 (cluster-I and cluster-V) to 8.94 (cluster-IV and cluster-V) in germplasm landraces during 2006. During 2007 Euclidean dissimilarity estimates among 174 landraces ranged between 1.7 and 15.1. The average Euclidean distance between all pairs of landraces was 8.450 .69. Landraces 6658 and 6646 were the closest germplasm landraces, with a distance of 1.7, 6770 and 6757 showed the maximum similarity. It was followed by Euclidean distance of 14.6, 14.0, 13.2and 13.1 recorded in 6546 and 6758, 6757 and 6779, 6546 and 6624, and check variety IR6 and 6779, respectively. Euclidean distance among clusters ranged from 2.77 (cluster-I and cluster-II) to 9.01 (cluster-IV and cluster-V). Cluster analysis Cluster analysis based on 27 morphological variables divided 174 landraces in to five main clusters (I, to V) at dissimilarity coefficient value of 11.4 during both growing seasons. The dendrogram was constructed using complete linkage method. Cluster-I consisted of major rice landraces (134 landraces), early in heading (7210.8), as well as maturity (116.113.5), with medium grain yield potential (30.77.7) and highest biological yield per plant (184.958.4). Cluster-II comprised of twelve landraces which were characterized as early maturing (113.813.6 days), long stature (142.921.6 cm), with more flag leaf area (57.021.5), bearing maximum number of total (24.35.4) as well as productive (21.44.6) tillers per plant, maximum harvest index (0.30.1), higher grain yield per plant (41.313.3) and minimum grain length (7.20.4) and gain length to width ratio (2.50.5). This group, also include japonica type check variety JP5. Majority of the landraces in this group belong to North West Frontier P rovince. Cluster-III included 15 landraces, earliest in heading (79.811.9) and maturity (120.914.5) with medium height (153.622.0), medium panicle size (27.83.6), lower biological yield (176.051.9), maximum harvest index, highest grain yield per plant (43.511.2) and slender grain length to breadth ratio (4.00.8). Cluster-IV also consists of fifteen landraces respectively with early heading (67.76.4), and maturity (107.29.1), shortest length of panicles (22.93.1), lowest garin yield(82.58.6) and seed setting percentage(27.05.6) while cluster-V consists of only one accession early in heading(64 days) as well as maturity(109 days) with long stature(183cm),maximum grain length and length to breadth ratio. In 2007, on the basis of Euclidean distance, dendrogram recovered the five main clusters as in 2006. The main differences existed in the fragmentation of various clusters and their arrangement. Cluster-I consisted of major rice landraces (70 landraces), early in heading (70.710.4days), as well as maturity (113.812.0days), tall plant height(159.811.3cm), maximum seed setting percentage(85.15.7), Harvest index(0.20.1) and 1000-grain weight (28.810.7g) and medium grain length (8.40.7mm).Cluster-II comprised of seventy five landraces which were characterized as very early in heading (65.68.1days) and maturity (106.79.2days), higher harvest index (0.20.0), taller plant height (152.813.8cm), medium grain yield (27.78.1g). Cluster-III included 24 landraces very late in days to heading(85.310.2days) and maturity(132.89.3days), maximum biological yield per plant (268.461.7g), minimum grain yield per plant (27.47.0 g).Cluster-IV also consists of fifteen landraces respectively with minimum flag leaf area (31.44.5cm2), shortest plant height (117.525.1cm), maximum productive tillers per plant(23.96.7), minimum paddy grain length to width ratio(3.41.0) and lowest panicle length(23.02.2cm) While cluster-V consists of only two landraces having maximum flag leaf area(92.950.4cm2) , plant height(172.614.7cm), panicle length(30.63.4cm), paddy grain length(9.10.0mm), grain yield per plant(33.28.3g), biological yield per plant (210.028.3g) and paddy grain length to width ratio(4.50.6) . Principal Component Analysis In order to assess patterns of variation, principal component analysis was done for 177 rice landraces by considering all the variables simultaneously during both years. It was observed that six of the 18 principal components (PCs) with an Eigen value higher than 1.0, accounted for 72.09 percent of the total variability amongst the 177 landraces evaluated during 2006. The coefficients defining six principal components of these data are given in Table . These coefficients were scaled, so that they present correlations between observed variables and derived components. The first principal component had 21.04percent of the total variation in the morphological traits. Days to heading(0.358), days to maturity(0.388),grain length/breadth ratio(0.306), paddy grain length(0.206), branches per panicle (0.142), biological yield per plant(0.266), plant height(0.120) and total tiller per plant(0.199) contributed primarily in variation. Conversely flag leaf length(-0.138), flag leaf width(-0.337) , flag leaf area(-0.303), harvest index(-0.149), 1000grain weight(-0.057) and paddy grain breadth(-0.233) had all negative weights. In year 2007, six of 19 components with 1.0 eigenvalues, contributed 70.48percent of the total variability found in germplasm landraces (Table ). Principal component 1 contributed 19.17percent, whereas PC2, PC3, PC4, PC5 and PC6 contributed 13.84percent, 12.82percent, 10.53percent, 8.03percent and 6.11percent, respectively in total divergence (Table ). The first principal component depicted primarily the pattern of variations in days to heading(0.374), days to maturity(0.398), plant height(0.076), total tiller per plant(0.212), productive tiller per plant(0.148), panicle length(0.170), branches per panicle(0.148), seed setting percentage(0.002), grain yield per plant(0.121), biological yield per plant(0.274), paddy grain length(0.352) and grain length breadth ratio (0.367) . On the contrary, flag leaf length (-0.123), flag leaf width (-0.280), flag leaf area (-0.234), harvest index (-0.043), 1000-grain weight (-0.026) and paddy grain breadth (-0.282) had all negative weights. Grain length to breadth ratio, a selection criterion Grain length to breadth ratio is a quality measure for rice and not as much sensitive to environmental fluctuations as other agronomic traits. The germplasm is divided into three major groups; long, short and medium. Along with other desirable traits on the basis of seed length to breadth ratio, landraces with long grain took longer time to maturity during both years, while short grained landraces took lower time for heading and maturity during both years. Long grained landraces have smaller leaf area during both years than short grained landraces having larger leaf area. Short grained landraces showed largest harvest index during 2006 and 2007. Percentage of medium grained genotypes among Pakistani landraces was highest (43% in 2006 and 46% in 2007) during both growing years. On the basis of consistent field performance during 2006 and 2007 for some quantitative traits, a group of landraces was selected (Table ). Discussion Genetic diversity of crop landraces requires every aspect of the diversity to be explored. It is necessary to mine new genes for crop improvement (Iannetta et al., 2007). Conservation of the genetic diversity of landrace crops is an important issue because of the extent to which this diversity is declining after green revolution. In order to maintain, evaluate and effectively utilize germplasm, extent of genetic diversity must be measured. Only source of genetic diversity is the germplasm by which the plant breeders develop new cultivars (Baranger, 2004). As the qualitative traits are under genetic control of two or many alleles of a single gene with little or no environmental modifications to obscure the gene effects e.g seed colour, seed shape, awning, awn colour etc, so no considerable change was observed in qualitative traits in next growing season. Quantitative traits are economically important; those have high variability because they are also controlled by more than one gene a nd could be used for the crop improvement (Amurrio et al., 1995; Fall et al., 2003). In Pakistani rice landraces, basic statistics for both 2006 and 2007 showed high degree of variation for all these 18 quantitative traits.These traits are directly or indirectly yield contributing and genetically very important for the selection of high yielding genotypes. Days to heading in one study on Bangladesh rice landraces ranged from 78 days to 109 days (Bisne and Sarawgi 2008). The variation for days to heading and maturity may be attributed to seasonal variations. Shah et al. (1999) stated that the opening of the spikelet depends primarily on the prevailing atmospheric temperature, the light intensity and other climatic conditions. Flag leaf area with its angle is the most important character in which maximum photosynthesis is occurred. Flag leaf area has the maximum contribution towards grain yield. Compared with commercial varieties, landrace genotypes were relatively taller in size than commercial cultivars. This is a typical feature of landraces, which excel in their capacity to support panicle growth by large stem reserve mobilization. Few short statured lines were identified which can be further utilized to develop fertilizer responsive and lodging resistant rice varieties. Leaf length and width are also important traits to be considered because of its contribution in photosynthetic activities. A larger leaf area development at early growth stage is thought to be a desirable character for better stand establishment, which ultimately affect the yield level. In this germplasm, 7 accessions were identified with leaf area more than 85cm square. The 1000 Grain weight is one of the most important yield components. Overall 18 accessions were selected having more than 40g weight during both years. These line scan be utilized as parents to improve seed weight which ultimately increa se the yield level. Most of the positive associations do not affect yield in this environment, the reason behind this is unknown. Highly positive correlations were also between heading and maturity time, paddy grain length and paddy grain length width ratio, flag leaf size and plant height. There was also significant positive association between grain yield and its component traits such as, total tiller per plant, productive tiller per plant, etc. It was also observed that landraces from northern hilly areas e.g Swat and Malakand, possess smaller and broad grains. This may attribute to the fact that grain length decreases with increase in altitude (Siddiqui et al., 2007). Though the grain length decreased in high altitude the increase in width compensated for grain volume to accumulate the grain weight, as it showed an increasing trend with increase in altitude, though other factors are also involved in the grain filling. These results suggest that Pakistan rice cultivars possess a distinct correlation in terms of altitudinal distribution for grain morphology. Days to heading and panicle length showed high polymorphism in Punjab collection while it was comparatively lower in Sindh and NWFP province. The reasons for this difference may be the lower sample size from Sindh and NWFP, which may be due to a narrow genetic background due to population food preferences, farmer choice and domestication of only few rice varieties with specific traits. Major programs for rice improvement done on behalf of Punjab this may be the reason for large collections with broad genetic background are available here. Different clustering analyses and PCAs scattered plot revealed that there is a lot of genetic diversity among the studied genotypes and also found that quantitative traits can also be used as a maker in breeding program but there was no geographic association because the genotypes from one place enter into more than one clusters. Conversely, genotypes from different geographic origins were relatively unique and tend to be clustered as was determined not only by environmental difference but also by genetic factors. Although principal component analysis grouped genotypes together with greater morphological similarities, the clusters did not necessarily include all the landraces from the same or nearby sites. The landraces were grouped according to their morphological similarity and not due to geographical origin. Gupta et al. (1991) reported that genetic diversity in mustard was not related to geographical distribution of the germplasm, as lines from different geographic regions were p ooled in the same cluster. Similarly, Amurrio et al. (1995) observed that grouping patterns of pea landraces did not reflect geographical origin. Overall our results showed that rice landraces explored from Pakistan harbour a broad range of genetic variation. From the present study, a number of promising lines have been identified for specific traits that may have some potential value in rice breeding programs. Table : Principal components for morpho-physiological traits of Pakistani rice landrace during 2006 and 2007 Trait PC1 PC2 PC3 PC4 PC5 PC6 PC1 PC2 PC3 PC4 PC5 PC6 Eigenvalue 3.79 2.57 2.17 1.81 1.5 1.15 3.45 2.49 2.31 1.89 1.44 1.1 Cumulative eigenvalue 3.79 6.36 8.52 10.33 11.83 12.98 3.45 5.94 8.25 10.14 11.59 12.69 Proportion of variance 21.04 14.28 12.03 10.05 8.31 6.38 19.17 13.84 12.82 10.53 8.03 6.11 Cumulative variance 21.04 35.32 47.35 57.4 65.71 72.09 19.17 33.01 45.83 56.35 64.38 70.48 Eigenvectors(2006) Eigenvectors(2007) DH 0.358 0.067 0.198 0.015 0.288 -0.016 0.374 -0.177 0.112 -0.099 -0.317 0.044 DM 0.388 0.011 0.204 0.121 0.233 -0.076 0.398 -0.183 0.03 -0.191 -0.252 0.084 FLL -0.138 -0.189 0.378 -0.299 -0.314 0.073 -0.123 -0.462 -0.105 0.143 0.248 0.156 FLW -0.337 -0.096 0.203 -0.07 0.11 -0.258 -0.28 -0.297 -0.131 0.075 -0.116 -0.039 FLA -0.303 -0.183 0.394 -0.256 -0.153 -0.125 -0.234 -0.503 -0.142 0.147 0.118 0.087 PH 0.12 -0.196 0.408 -0.145 -0.04 0.353 0.076 -0.411 -0.142 -0.01 0.087 -0.139 TT/P 0.199 0.428 0.072 -0.083 -0.438 -0.05 0.212 -0.071 0.426 -0.084 0.385 0.042 PT/P 0.212 0.437 0.063 -0.056 -0.413 -0.053 0.148 -0.076 0.443 -0.02 0.434 0.061 PL 0.206 0.009 0.158 -0.057 -0.065 0.467 0.17 -0.188 0.076 0.001 0.173 -0.459 B/P 0.142 0.021 0.305 -0.01 0.319 -0.012 0.148 -0.261 -0.07 -0.056 -0.281 -0.193 SS(percent) 0.058 0.117 0.076 -0.299 0.322 -0.348 0.002 -0.036 0.129 0.16 -0.338 0.508 GY/P 0.034 0.304 0.047 -0.446 0.245 0.067 0.121 -0.127 0.331 0.433 -0.239 -0.164 BY/P 0.266 -0.064 0.292 0.217 -0.046 -0.196 0.274 -0.184 -0.025 -0.329 -0.07 0.037 HI -0.149 0.309 -0.177 -0.466 0.213 0.203 -0.043 0.014 0.322 0.571 -0.179 -0.173 1000GW -0.057 -0.077 -0.075 0.098 0.145 0.58 -0.026 0.126 -0.135 -0.034 -0.073 -0.593 GL 0.293 -0.293 -0.12 -0.209 -0.054 -0.084 0.352 0.004 -0.291 0.194 0.053 0.013 GB -0.233 0.311 0.279 0.298 0.122 0.049 -0.282 -0.137 0.302 -0.33 -0.224 -0.102 GL/GB 0.306 -0.331 -0.253 -0.309 -0.096 -0.084 0.367 0.106 -0.325 0.316 0.167 0.083 Table: Basic Statistics for 177 Pakistani rice landraces for 18 quantitative traits in 2006 and 2007 Year-2006 Year-2007 Trait MeanSE Min Max CV(%) Variance MeanSE Min Max CV(%) Variance DH 72.40.81 48 99 14.9 117.0 70.40.85 43 97 15.8 129.3 DM 115.71.01 85 145 11.6 179.8 113.21.02 80 145 11.9 184.5 FLL 45.50.60 29.2 72.0 17.6 64.2 44.30.67 21.5 79.3 20.0 78.5 FLW 1.80.02 1.3 2.6 15.8 0.1 1.70.02 1.1 2.5 14.9 0.1 FLA 63.21.2 33.3 130.2 25.7 263.2 58.31.20 26.2 128.6 27.5 257.0 PH 156.91.11 92.4 198.6 9.4 216.4 156.01.09 93.0 187.0 9.3 211.6 TT/P 16.60.32 10.4 36.5 25.8 18.2 15.30.34 8.6 35.2 29.8 20.7 PT/P 14.10.30 8.2 30.5 28.5 16.2 13.60.31 7.9 32.0 30.3 16.9 PL 26.80.28 13.3 47.7 14.0 14.1 24.90.32 12.4 48.5 17.0 18.0 B/P 14.70.28 9.6 34.2 25.6 14.3 13.10.36 7.4 35.6 36.6 22.8 SS% 83.10.49 63.0 93.0 7.8 42.2 83.90.50 58.6 99.9 7.9 44.2 GY/P 32.30.71 16.4 70.1 29.3 89.5 29.20.76 8.9 66.8 34. 4 101.0 BY/P 180.14.36 100 380 32.2 3370.5 200.34.11 120 390 27.3 2984.7 HI 0.200.01 0.05 0.63 41.6 0.01 0.150.00 0.03 0.44 40.3 0.00 1000GW 27.10.72 13.7 60.9 35.2 91.1 27.10.76 12.6 63.6 37.2 101.4 PGL 8.50.06 6.4 10.4 9.5 0.65 8.40.06 6.6 10.1 9.2 0.59 PGB 2.30.03 1.6 3.2 15.2 0.12 2.30.03 1.7 3.3 14.8 0.12 GL/GB 3.80.05 2.1 5.9 19.1 0.52 3.70.05 2.2 5.2 18.3 0.45 Table: Association of grain characteristics with other quantitative traits in Pakistani rice germplasm Range groups (Year 2006) Range groups (Year 2007) Traits Short Medium Long Short Medium Long DH 70.821.75 71.341.06 73.671.46 67.631.63 69.121.03 72.601.67 DM 111.922.38 115.31.46 117.331.65 108.162.09 112.531.34 116.191.88 FLL 45.411.92 46.050.77 45.480.98 44.321.97 45.370.81 43.501.16 FLW 1.990.06 1.820.03 1.750.03 1.850.04 1.720.02 1.670.03 FLA 69.454.08 63.901.58 60.951.83 62.813.19 59.731.56 55.622.09 PH 153.702.38 158.181.52 158.721.66 152.352.17 159.101.51 155.881.66 TT/P 17.561.24 16.350.41 16.380.46 15.651.12 14.840.40 15.580.60 PT/P 15.021.11 13.850.39 13.930.45 14.461.03 13.190.37 13.530.52 PL 25.410.63 26.960.41 27.370.46 23.50.55 25.380.46 25.190.58 B/P 14.800.52 15.200.43 14.190.48 12.290.5 13.190.41 13.230.82 SS(%) 83.031.33 82.20.76 83.870.73 84.371.31 83.720.70 83.910.87 GY/P 33.642.22 31.130.98 32.881.12 28.532.09 28.131.02 30.771.31 BY/P 170.7111.61 181.066.64 183.386.93 185.58.53 198.76.19 2107.08 HI 0.220.02 0.180.01 0.190.01 0.160.01 0.150.01 0.150.01 1000GW 28.862.11 25.801.09 27.881.06 27.021.77 26.341.13 28.071.30 GL 7.340.12 8.410.07 8.920.06 7.190.05 8.470.06 8.800.06 GB 2.860.05 2.330.02 2.040.01 2.910.03 2.330.02 2.060.01 GL/GB 2.610.10 3.620.03 4.370.03 2.480.04 3.630.02 4.260.02 No. of Landraces 28 75 71 30 81 63 Table-3: Selected germplasm accessions of local rice on the basis of best performance in important agro-morphological and grain characteristics during growing seasons 2006 and 2007 Trait Range Accessions Identified Days to maturity 100 days 6560, 6570, 6621, 6655, 6675, 6685, 6731, 6734, 6746, 6746, 6754,6755, 6756, 6757, 6758 Flag leaf size/area 85 cm2 6595, 6542, 6629, 6636, 6724, 6725, 6779 Plant height 130 cm 6564, 6626, 6680 Productive tillers/plant 20 tillers 6527, 6550, 6551, 6556, 6557, 6558, 6623, 6624, 6626, 6738, 6744, 6754, 6757, 6758 Panicle length 30 cm 6524, 6537, 6538, 6562, 6563, 6565, 6569, 6590, 6744, 6760, 6779 Spikelets /panicle 18 spike-lets 6526, 6527, 6550, 6556, 6557, 6558, 6564, 6623, 6624, 6626, 6629, 6731, 6738, 6744, 6757, 6758 Grain yield/plant 40 g 6520, 6523, 6550, 6559, 6559, 6585, 6620, 6623, 6624, 6628, 6633, 6645, 6651, 6654, 6683, 6712, 6755 1000-grain weight 40 g 6506, 6522, 6525, 6538, 6547, 6581,6615 ,6645, 6651, 6666, 6667, 6668, 6675, 6676, 6771, 6672, 6672, 6720 Grain length 10 mm 6505 9 Traits DF DM PH PL FLL FLW LA TT/P PT/P SS% BY/P GL GW HI B/P GL/GB 1000GW GY/P 2006 0.70 1.18 0.14 0.65 0.73 0.63 1.28 1.10 0.66 1.37 1.30 0.91 0.72 1.13 0.72 0.47 0.72 1.30 2007 0.65 1.35 0.14 0.77 0.80 0.70 1.16 1.10 0.74 1.33 1.46 0.79 0.62 0.93 0.52 0.52 0.79 1.33 PUNJAB DH DM FLL FLW FLA PH GY/P B/P SS% PL PTP TTP BY/P HI 1000GW GL GB GL/GB MeanSE 2006 1.00 0.96 0.52 0.74 0.56 0.43 0.92 0.52 0.99 0.38 0.79 0.49 0.90 0.91 0.51 0.56 0.44 0.76 0.680.05 2007 1.00 0.85 0.53 0.63 0.53 0.44 0.88 0.33 0.83 0.35 0.75 0.73 0.97 0.25 0.53 0.48 0.38 0.37 0.600.05 SINDH 2006 0.32 0.50 0.63 0.80 0.80 0.50 0.94 0.32 0.94 0.50 0.64 0.32 0.94 0.50 0.89 0.50 0.00 0.90 0.610.06 2007 0.27 0.42 0.53 0.79 0.54 0.51 0.86 0.54 1.00 0.42 0.54 0.51 0.97 1.00 0.75 0.67 0.00 0.92 0.620.05 NWFP 2006 0.89 0.50 0.50 0.68 0.60 0.44 1.00 0.43 0.62 0.40 0.82 0.82 0.82 0.68 0.20 0.38 0.38 0.20 0.570.05 2007 0.88 0.80 0.61 0.83 0.69 0.53 0.74 0.55 0.83 0.38 1.00 1.00 0.94 0.67 0.38 0.52 0.60 0.24 0.670.05 Literature Reviewed: Atlin, G.N., Lafitte, H.R., Tao, D., Laza, M., Amante, M., Courtois, B., 2006. 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Ahmad, N.I. Hashmi and M. Bashir. 2003. Genetic diversity based on agronomic traits and SDS-PAGE markers in relation to geographic pattern of blackgram [Vigna mungo (L.) Hepper]. Journal of Genetics Breeding, 57: 5-14. Zhu, L., R.G. Li and X.M. Wu. 1998. RAPD analysis in part of Chinese B. campestris. Biol. Divers., 6: 99-104. Virk, P.S., Newbury,H.J., Jackson, M.T., Ford-Lloyd, B.V., 1995. The identification of duplicate accessions within a rice germplasm collection using RAPD analysis. Theor.Appl.Genet. 90, 1049- 1055. Virk, P.S., B.V. Ford-Lloyd, M.T. Jackson, H.S. Pooni, T.P. Clemeno and H.J. Newbury. 1996. Predicting quantitative variation within rice germplasm using molecular markers. Heredity 76:296-304. Harlan, J.R. 1975. Crops and man. American Society of Agronomy, Crop Science Society of America, Madison, Wisconsin, USA. Allard, RW. 1999. Principles of plant breeding. 2nd edition. John Willey Sons, Inc. New York, USA. Louette, D. 2000. Traditional management of seed and genetic diversity: what is a landrace? Pp. 109-142 in Genes in the Field: On-farm Conservation of Crop Diversity (S.B. Brush, ed.). IPGRI, IDRC, and Lewis Publishers, USA. Zhu, J. 1996. DNA fingerprinting in Oryza sativa L. A PhD Thesis submitted to University of East Anglia, John Innes Centre, UK. Trait Character Punjab Sindh NWFP Trait Character Punjab Sindh NWFP Flag leaf angle Erect 39.87 30 9.09 Awn color No awn 35.29 20 0 Intermediate 27.45 70 90.9 White 60.78 80 100 Horizontal 20.26 0 0 Light brown 1.31 0 0 Descending 12.42 0 0 Brown 0.65 0 0 Flag leaf shape Erect 39.87 40 9.09 Dark brown 0.65 0 0 Semi-erect 40.52 60 90.9 Red 1.31 0 0 Droopy 19.61 0 0 Seed coat color White 5.88 0 0 Leaf appearance Narrow 24.84 0 90.9 Light brown 33.33 10 9.09091 Intermediate 75.16 100 9.09 Speckled brown 9.15 40 0 Broad 0.00 0 0 Brown 32.03 50 90.9091 Lodging Heavy lodging 39.87 90 9.09 Red 3.27 0 0 Slight lodging 49.02 0 90.9 Variable purple 8.50 0 0 Absent 11.11 10 0 Purple 0.00 0 0 Panicle type Compact 49.02 20 27.3 Reddish brown 7.84 0 0 Intermediate 5.88 10 63.6 Panicle exertion Well exerted 52.94 60 27.2727 Open 45.10 70 9.09 Moderately exerted 14.38 40 63.6364 Awning Awned 56.86 50 9.09 Just exerted 22.22 0 0 Awnletted 9.15 30 54.5 Partly exerted 10.46 0 9.09091 Awnless 33.99 20 36.4 Enclosed 0.00 0 0 9